Javanese grammar, step by step

Javanese verbs have zero tense marking. The verb omong (speak) is the same whether the action is past, present, or future. Time is expressed through context or separate time words like wingi (yesterday), saiki (now), sesuk (tomorrow).

Javanese has two main speech levels: ngoko (informal, with friends and younger people) and krama (formal, with elders and strangers). They use entirely different vocabulary — not just pronouns but verbs, nouns, and adverbs. "Aku ngomong" (I speak, ngoko) becomes "Kula matur" (I speak, krama) — two completely different words for both "I" and "speak."

Javanese basic word order is Subject–Verb–Object, like English and Indonesian: "Aku maca buku" (I read book). However, Javanese allows more flexibility than Indonesian — in subordinate clauses and with topicalization, other orders appear.

The active voice nasal prefix N- assimilates to the root's first consonant, often replacing it. N- + tulis → nulis (the t is absorbed). N- + gawe → nggawe (nasal added before g). N- + sapu → nyapu (s is absorbed). N- + waca → maca (w becomes m). N- + pangan → mangan (p is absorbed). This nasal assimilation is more pervasive in Javanese than in Indonesian.

Like Indonesian, Javanese forms the passive by replacing the nasal active prefix with di-: "Aku maca buku" (I read the book) becomes "Bukune diwaca" (The book was read). The passive is very common in both formal and casual Javanese.

The suffix -ake marks the benefactive or causative — the action is done for someone or causes something: "macaake" (to read aloud for someone). The suffix -i marks the locative or repetitive — the action is directed at a place or done repeatedly: "tulisi" (to write on/to). These are like Indonesian's -kan and -i.

The circumfix ke-...-an wraps around a verb root to express adversative or involuntary action — something that happened accidentally or without intention: "keturon" (accidentally fell asleep, from turu = sleep), "kodanan" (got caught in rain, from udan = rain). This circumfix also forms abstract nouns: "kesenengan" (happiness, from seneng = happy).

Javanese has no articles, but the suffix -e (after consonants) or -ne (after vowels) marks definiteness: "buku" (a book) vs. "bukune" (the book). This suffix also marks third-person possession: "bukune Ani" (Ani's book). It is similar to Indonesian's -nya.

Since Javanese verbs have no tense marking, time and aspect are expressed with separate words placed before the verb: wis (already/completed), lagi (currently/in progress), arep (about to/will), durung (not yet). These are optional — context often suffices.

Even negation has two speech levels. In ngoko (informal), the negator is ora: "Aku ora ngomong" (I do not speak). In krama (formal), it becomes boten: "Kula boten matur" (I do not speak). The negator is placed before the verb in both levels. Dudu (ngoko) / sanes (krama) negates nouns: "Dudu guru" (Not a teacher).

For yes/no questions, add apa at the beginning: "Apa kowe arep mangan?" (Are you going to eat?). For information questions, question words stay in-situ: "Kowe maca apa?" (You read what?), "Kowe manggon ngendi?" (You live where?). Question words include apa (what), sapa (who), ngendi (where), kapan (when).

Like Indonesian, Javanese requires classifiers between numbers and nouns: wong for people, iji for small round things, lembar for flat things. "Telu wong guru" (three CLF teachers). The general classifier is wiji or iji for small objects.

The krama vocabulary extends far beyond pronouns. Common verbs, nouns, adjectives, and even adverbs all have krama replacements. Building a krama sentence means replacing nearly every content word. "Aku wis mangan sega" (ngoko: I already ate rice) becomes "Kula sampun nedha sekul" (krama) — four out of four content words change.

Possession is expressed with the definite suffix -e/-ne on the possessed noun, followed by the possessor: "bukune Ani" (Ani's book), "omahe bapak" (father's house). The possessor can also be a pronoun: "bukuku" (my book — with the clitic -ku), "bukumu" (your book — with -mu).

Sing is the relative pronoun that links a noun to a relative clause, like Indonesian's yang. "Wong sing maca buku" (the person who reads books). "Buku sing diwaca" (the book that was read). Sing always follows the noun and introduces the modifying clause.

Krama inggil (high krama) uses special vocabulary when referring to the actions, possessions, or body parts of an honored person. "Mangan" (eat, ngoko) → "nedha" (eat, krama) → "dhahar" (eat, krama inggil — used for the honored person's eating). The speaker uses krama for their own actions but krama inggil for the honored person's actions. This creates asymmetric speech within a single conversation.

Javanese grammar combines an Austronesian voice system (nasal N- active, di- passive, -ake/-i applicatives, ke-...-an adversative) with a unique speech level system where ngoko and krama use entirely different vocabulary sets. The -e/-ne definite suffix, sing relative clauses, time words, and classifiers complete the picture. Mastering Javanese means learning two vocabularies united by one grammar.