Citations & Data Sources

Glottolog

Comprehensive reference for the world's languages, maintained by the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. We use the Agglomerated Endangerment Status (AES) to derive language vitality classifications.

Data used

AES endangerment levels (not endangered, threatened, shifting, moribund, nearly extinct, extinct)

Appears in

Comparison Table → Status section (Vitality, Trend)

Hammarström, Harald & Forkel, Robert & Haspelmath, Martin & Bank, Sebastian. 2024. Glottolog 5.1. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.

URIEL+

Academic (cite paper) GitHub

Typological, phonological, and phylogenetic database covering thousands of languages. Extends the original URIEL database with additional features.

Data used

Syntax features (word order, pro-drop, articles, adjective/numeral position)
Phonology features (tonal, clicks, ejectives, implosives, uvulars)
Morphology features (gender, noun cases, politeness distinctions)
Genetic/typological vectors for language similarity calculation

Appears in

Comparison Table → Typology (URIEL+) section
Language similarity scores (internal calculation)

Littell, Patrick, et al. "URIEL and lang2vec: Representing languages as typological, phylogenetic, and geographical vectors." Proceedings of the 15th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 2017.

PHOIBLE 2.0

CC BY 4.0 phoible.org

A cross-linguistic database of phonological inventory data for the world's languages. PHOIBLE 2.0 covers 3,020 inventories across 2,186 languages, compiled from descriptive grammars, typological databases, and field surveys.

Data used

Tonal status — whether a language uses lexical or grammatical tone
Click consonants — presence of click phonemes (ǀ ǁ ǃ ǂ ʘ) in the inventory
Covers ~1,205 languages in our catalog (matched by ISO 639-3 then Glottocode)

Appears in

Comparison Table → Typology section (tonal, clicks)
Discover a Language → Phonology filters (tonal, click consonants)

Moran, Steven & McCloy, Daniel (eds.) 2019. PHOIBLE 2.0. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. Available online at phoible.org.

Grambank

CC BY 4.0 grambank.clld.org

A global database of structural (grammatical) properties of the world's languages, compiled by a team of more than 100 linguists. Grambank covers 2,467 languages and 195 features drawn from published grammars.

Data used

Syntactic features (word order, adjective/numeral position, articles, pro-drop)
Morphological features (noun cases, gender, dual number, clusivity, politeness)
Fills grammar data for ~476 additional languages beyond URIEL+ coverage

Appears in

Comparison Table → Typology (URIEL+) section
Discover a Language → Grammar filters (word order, gender, cases, etc.)

Skirgård, Hedvig et al. 2023. Grambank reveals the importance of genealogical constraints on linguistic diversity and is itself well-explained by geography. Science Advances 9(eadg6175). doi:10.1126/sciadv.adg6175

Glottography / Asher 2007 World Atlas

CC-BY 4.0 GitHub

Digitized polygons of native speaker distribution areas from the Atlas of the World's Languages (2nd edition, Routledge 2007). Maps where languages are traditionally spoken, not political boundaries.

Data used

Native speaker distribution polygon geometries (~4,686 features across ~3,612 languages)
Geographic area (km²) per language — computed from polygon geometries using the spherical line-integral formula, summed across all features for each language
Language endangerment (AES) and country presence extracted from feature metadata

Appears in

Discover tab → map layer
Language area (km²) data in geojson-metadata.json — available for language profiles and statistics
Language vitality (AES) and geographic region filters

Asher, R.E. & Moseley, Christopher (eds.). 2007. Atlas of the World's Languages. 2nd edn. London: Routledge. Digitized by Glottography / CLDF.

etymology-db (Wiktionary)

CC-BY-SA 3.0 GitHub

Structured etymology data extracted from Wiktionary, tracking lexical borrowing relationships between languages. Used to identify vocabulary overlap from historical contact and borrowing.

Data used

Lexical borrowing percentages and counts between language pairs

Appears in

Language similarity calculations (borrowing bonus component)

Natural Earth

Public Domain naturalearthdata.com

Free vector and raster map data at 1:10m, 1:50m, and 1:110m scales. Provides the country boundary polygons used in the globe and map visualizations.

Data used

Country boundary polygons (110m and 50m resolution, TopoJSON)

Appears in

Globe & Map → Country boundaries and base layer

Unicode CLDR

Unicode License (commercial use OK) cldr.unicode.org

The Unicode Common Locale Data Repository provides script-to-language mappings and writing system properties. Script assignments are derived from CLDR data and Unicode block analysis.

Data used

Script assignments for languages (Latin, Cyrillic, Arabic, Devanagari, etc.)
Writing direction, case system, and character count properties

Appears in

Comparison Table → Writing System section

Omniglot

The online encyclopedia of writing systems and languages, maintained by Simon Ager. Omniglot documents the scripts, orthographies, and writing histories of the world's languages, covering hundreds of writing systems with detailed per-language articles.

Data used

Script identification for ~250 minority and regional languages not covered by Unicode CLDR
Verification of primary vs. secondary scripts for multi-script languages
Historical and modern orthography information (e.g. Ethiopic vs. Latin for Ethiopian languages, Shahmukhi for Pahari-Potwari)

Appears in

Comparison Table → Writing System section (script assignments for minority languages)

Ager, Simon. Omniglot — The Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems & Languages. Available at omniglot.com. Cross-referenced with Wikipedia language articles and SIL International’s ScriptSource (scriptsource.org).

Wikidata

CC0 (Public Domain) wikidata.org

Free knowledge base providing structured data about languages, including official status in countries and international organizations. Speaker population data (P1098) queried via SPARQL for ~1,878 languages.

Data used

Official language status (UN, EU, international organizations)
Speaker population counts (P1098) with year of estimate

Appears in

Comparison Table → Status section (Official Status)
Discover a Language → All Languages tooltips (speaker counts)

Wikipedia

CC-BY-SA 4.0 en.wikipedia.org

Speaker counts extracted from language article infoboxes for ~2,500 languages not covered by Wikidata’s structured speaker data. Wikipedia infobox data typically cites census data and Ethnologue.

Data used

Speaker population counts from language article infoboxes

Appears in

Discover a Language → All Languages tooltips (speaker counts)

EF English Proficiency Index

Annual ranking of countries and regions by English skills, based on test data from millions of adults worldwide. Used to estimate English proficiency rates in countries without survey data.

Data used

English proficiency levels by country

Appears in

Language reach calculations (country-level bilingualism estimates)

EF Education First. (2024). EF English Proficiency Index. Signum International AG.

Eurobarometer 540

CC BY 4.0 europa.eu

EU-wide survey on language knowledge and attitudes, covering proficiency rates for all official EU languages across member states.

Data used

Language proficiency rates across EU member states

Appears in

Language reach calculations (European bilingualism data)

European Commission. (2024). Special Eurobarometer 540: Europeans and their Languages. Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture.

Ethnologue

Proprietary (SIL International) ethnologue.com

Comprehensive reference cataloging all known living languages, with speaker population estimates and language-by-country distribution data.

Data used

Total/native/L2 speaker counts
Language-by-country distribution

Appears in

Language reach calculations, speaker statistics

Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons & Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2024. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-seventh edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.

British Council

Research and publications on English language learning and proficiency worldwide, providing estimates for countries not covered by other survey data.

Data used

English proficiency estimates for non-European countries

Appears in

Language reach calculations

British Council. Research and Insight: Languages. British Council.

Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)

Report on the state of the French language worldwide, including speaker counts, proficiency levels, and distribution by country.

Data used

French speaker counts and proficiency data by country

Appears in

Language reach calculations

Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. (2022). La langue française dans le monde: 2019–2022. Paris: Gallimard.

WALS Online (World Atlas of Language Structures)

CC BY 4.0 wals.info

Large database of structural (phonological, grammatical, lexical) properties of languages, gathered from descriptive materials by a team of 55+ authors.

Data used

Typological features for language classification

Appears in

Language reach calculations

Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). 2013. WALS Online (v2020.4). Zenodo. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.13950591.

Linguistic Literature (Mutual Intelligibility)

Academic / Wikipedia CC-BY-SA 4.0 Wikipedia

Mutual intelligibility data compiled from comparative linguistics literature, Wikipedia language family articles, and published empirical studies. Covers intelligibility relationships for ~186 languages across Romance, Germanic, Slavic, Turkic, Indo-Aryan, Arabic, Dravidian, Austronesian, Celtic, Bantu, and Cushitic families.

Data used

Intelligibility levels (very_high / high / moderate / low) for related language pairs
Asymmetric relationships preserved — e.g. Portuguese speakers understand Spanish better than vice versa

Appears in

Comparison Table → Mutually Intelligible row

Gooskens, Charlotte. (2007). The contribution of linguistic factors to the intelligibility of closely related languages. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 28(6), 445–467.
Tang, C., & Van Heuven, V.J. (2009). Mutual intelligibility of Chinese dialects experimentally tested. Lingua 119(5), 709–732.
Wikipedia contributors. Mutual intelligibility. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. CC-BY-SA 4.0.

UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

UNESCO copyright UNESCO

Comprehensive inventory of the world's endangered languages, with endangerment classifications ranging from vulnerable to extinct.

Data used

Language endangerment classifications

Appears in

Language reach calculations

Moseley, Christopher (ed.). 2010. Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. 3rd edition. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-104096-2.

Reference Grammars (per-language scholarly sources)

Various scholarly works

mossyrune’s grammar walkthroughs, mechanism builders, and language overview pages describe the grammatical structure of each language. These descriptions are informed by the published descriptive and reference grammars listed below (511 works in total). Grammatical facts — word order, paradigm structure, particle usage, and so on — are not subject to copyright, but the scholars who documented them deserve attribution.

Per-language source lists also appear at the top of each grammar file in src/lib/data/grammar/ and mechanism file in src/lib/data/mechanisms/, alongside research notes in docs/references/.

Indo-European — Romance 34

Abeillé, A. & Godard, D. (eds.) (2021). La grande grammaire du français. Actes Sud / CNRS.
Batchelor, R. E. & Chebli-Saadi, M. A Reference Grammar of French. Cambridge University Press.
Bosque, I. & Demonte, V. (eds.) (1999). Gramática descriptiva de la lengua española. 3 vols. Espasa Calpe.
Butt, J. & Benjamin, C. (2011). A New Reference Grammar of Modern Spanish (5th ed.). Hodder Education.
Cojocaru, D. (2003). Romanian Grammar. SEELRC, Duke University.
Cunha, C. & Cintra, L. (2017). Nova Gramática do Português Contemporâneo (7th ed.). Lexikon.
Dobrovie-Sorin, C. & Giurgea, I. (2006). The Syntax of Romanian. Oxford University Press.
Grevisse, M. & Goosse, A. (2008/2016). Le Bon Usage (14th/16th ed.). De Boeck.
Hawkins, R. & Towell, R. (2015). French Grammar and Usage (4th ed.). Routledge.
Hualde, J. I. (2005). The Sounds of Spanish. Cambridge University Press.
Hualde, J. I., Olarrea, A., Escobar, A. M. & Travis, C. E. (2010). Introducción a la lingüística hispánica (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Hutchinson, A. P. & Lloyd, J. (2003). Portuguese: An Essential Grammar. Routledge.
King, L. D. & Suñer, M. (2004). Gramática española: Análisis y práctica (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Lepschy, A. L. & Lepschy, G. (1988). The Italian Language Today (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Lipski, J. M. (2012). El español de América (6th ed.). Cátedra.
Maiden, M. & Robustelli, C. (2007). A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Mallinson, G. (1986). Romanian. Croom Helm Descriptive Grammars.
Mateus, M. H. M. et al. (2003). Gramática da Língua Portuguesa (7th ed.). Caminho.
Pană Dindelegan, G. (2013). The Grammar of Romanian. Oxford University Press.
Perini, M. A. (2002). Modern Portuguese: A Reference Grammar. Yale University Press.
Price, G. A Comprehensive French Grammar (6th ed.). Blackwell.
Proudfoot, A. & Cardo, F. (2005). Modern Italian Grammar: A Practical Guide (2nd ed.). Routledge.
RAE & ASALE (2009). Nueva gramática de la lengua española. Espasa.
RAE & ASALE (2010). Nueva gramática de la lengua española: Manual. Espasa.
Raposo, E. B. P. et al. (eds.) (2013). Gramática do Português. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian.
Renzi, L., Salvi, G. & Cardinaletti, A. (eds.) (1988–95). Grande grammatica italiana di consultazione. 3 vols. Il Mulino.
Riegel, M., Pellat, J.-C. & Rioul, R. (2011/2018). Grammaire méthodique du français (4th/7th ed.). PUF.
Rohlfs, G. (1966–69). Grammatica storica della lingua italiana e dei suoi dialetti. 3 vols. Einaudi.
Serianni, L. (1989). Grammatica italiana: Italiano comune e lingua letteraria. UTET.
Teyssier, P. (1982). História da Língua Portuguesa. Sá da Costa.
Thomas, E. W. (1969/2000). The Syntax of Spoken Brazilian Portuguese. Vanderbilt University Press.
Whitley, M. S. & González, L. (2016). Gramática para la composición (3rd ed.). Georgetown University Press.
Whitlam, J. (2017). Modern Brazilian Portuguese Grammar: A Practical Guide (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Zagona, K. (2002). The Syntax of Spanish. Cambridge University Press.

Indo-European — Germanic 27

Aarts, B. (2011). Oxford Modern English Grammar. Oxford University Press.
Aarts, B., Bowie, J. & Popova, G. (eds.) (2019). The Oxford Handbook of English Grammar. Oxford University Press.
Baugh, A. C. & Cable, T. (2012). A History of the English Language (6th ed.). Routledge.
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Longman.
Booij, G. (2002/2019). The Morphology of Dutch (1st/2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English: A Comprehensive Guide. Cambridge University Press.
Donaldson, B. (1997/2008). Dutch: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge.
Duden (2016). Die Grammatik (9th ed.). Dudenverlag.
Durrell, M. (2011). Using German: A Guide to Contemporary Usage (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Eisenberg, P. (2013). Grundriss der deutschen Grammatik (4th ed.). 2 vols. Metzler.
Fox, A. (2005). The Structure of German (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Greenbaum, S. (1996). The Oxford English Grammar. Oxford University Press.
Haeseryn, W., Romijn, K., Geerts, G., de Rooij, J. & van den Toorn, M. C. (1997). Algemene Nederlandse Spraakkunst (ANS) (2nd ed.). Martinus Nijhoff / Wolters Noordhoff.
Halliday, M. A. K. & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2014). Halliday's Introduction to Functional Grammar (4th ed.). Routledge.
Hammer, A. E. & Durrell, M. (2017). Hammer's German Grammar and Usage (7th ed.). Routledge.
Helbig, G. & Buscha, J. Deutsche Grammatik: Ein Handbuch für den Ausländerunterricht. Klett/Langenscheidt.
Hentschel, E. & Weydt, H. (2013). Handbuch der deutschen Grammatik (4th ed.). de Gruyter.
Huddleston, R. & Pullum, G. K. (2002). The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press.
Huddleston, R., Pullum, G. K. & Reynolds, B. (2022). A Student's Introduction to English Grammar (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Jespersen, O. (1909–49). A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. 7 vols. Allen & Unwin / Munksgaard.
Parrott, M. (2010). Grammar for English Language Teachers (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1972). A Grammar of Contemporary English. Longman.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman.
Shetter, W. Z. & Ham, E. (2007). Dutch: An Essential Grammar (9th ed.). Routledge.
Swan, M. (2016). Practical English Usage (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
Zifonun, G., Hoffmann, L. & Strecker, B. (1997). Grammatik der deutschen Sprache. 3 vols. de Gruyter.
Zwart, J.-W. (2011). The Syntax of Dutch. Cambridge University Press.

Indo-European — Slavic 15

Bailyn, J. F. (2012). The Syntax of Russian. Cambridge University Press.
Forsyth, J. (1970). A Grammar of Aspect: Usage and Meaning in the Russian Verb. Cambridge University Press.
Humesky, A. (1980). Modern Ukrainian. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies.
Janda, L. A. & Clancy, S. J. (2002). The Case Book for Russian. Slavica.
Levine, J. (2009). Russian Grammar. McGraw-Hill.
Offord, D. & Gogolitsyna, N. (2005). Using Russian: A Guide to Contemporary Usage (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Press, I. & Pugh, S. (1999). Ukrainian: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge.
Pugh, S. & Press, I. (1994/2005). Colloquial Ukrainian. Routledge.
Pulkina, I. M. & Zakhava-Nekrasova, E. B. (1992). Russian: A Practical Grammar with Exercises. Russky Yazyk.
Sadowska, I. (2012). Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge.
Shvedova, N. Yu. (ed.) (1980). Russkaya grammatika. 2 vols. Nauka.
Swan, O. E. (2002). A Grammar of Contemporary Polish. Slavica.
Timberlake, A. (2004). A Reference Grammar of Russian. Cambridge University Press.
Wade, T. (2011). A Comprehensive Russian Grammar (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Zaliznyak, A. A. (1977/2003). Grammaticheskiy slovar' russkogo yazyka. Russkiye Slovari.

Indo-European — Indo-Aryan 60

Bashir, E. & Conners, T. J. (2019). A Descriptive Grammar of Hindko, Panjabi, and Saraiki. Mouton de Gruyter.
Bhatia, T. K. (1993). Punjabi: A Cognitive-Descriptive Grammar. Routledge.
Bonazzi, E. (2008). Bangla Language Handbook. LINCOM Europa.
Butt, M. (1995). The Structure of Complex Predicates in Urdu. CSLI Publications.
Cardona, G. & Jain, D. (eds.) (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge.
Cardona, G. & Suthar, B. (2003). "Gujarati." In Cardona & Jain (eds.), 659–697. Routledge.
Chatterji, S. K. (1926). The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language. 2 vols. Calcutta University.
Dasgupta, P. (2003). "Bangla." In Cardona & Jain (eds.), 351–390. Routledge.
Delacy, R. & Joshi, S. (2018). Elementary Hindi. Tuttle.
Dhongde, R. V. & Wali, K. (2009). Marathi. LOALL 13. John Benjamins.
Gill, H. S. & Gleason, H. A. (1969). A Reference Grammar of Punjabi. Panjab University.
Grierson, G. A. (1883–87). Seven Grammars of the Dialects and Subdialects of the Bihari Languages. Bharatiya.
Grierson, G. A. (1903–28). Linguistic Survey of India. (esp. Vols. V/VI/IX). Calcutta.
Hook, P. E. (1974). The Compound Verb in Hindi. University of Michigan.
Jha, S. (1958). The Formation of the Maithili Language. Luzac.
Kachru, Y. (2006). Hindi. LOALL 12. John Benjamins.
Kavyopadhyaya, H. L. et al. (1921). A Grammar of the Chhattisgarhi Dialect of Eastern Hindi. Baptist Mission Press.
Kellogg, S. H. (1893). A Grammar of the Hindi Language (3rd ed.). Kegan Paul.
Khubchandani, L. M. (2003). "Sindhi." In Cardona & Jain (eds.). Routledge.
Koul, O. N. (2008). A Reference Grammar of Urdu. Indian Institute of Language Studies.
Lambert, H. M. (1971). Gujarati Language Course. Cambridge University Press.
Lekhwani, K. (1997). An Intensive Course in Sindhi (2nd ed.). CIIL.
Masica, C. P. (1991/1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press.
McGregor, R. S. (1977). Hindi Grammar. Oxford University Press.
McGregor, R. S. (1995). Outline of Hindi Grammar (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Mistry, P. J. (1997). "Gujarati." In Comrie (ed.), The Major Languages of South Asia. Routledge.
Mohanan, T. (1994). Argument Structure in Hindi. CSLI Publications.
Mohapatra, B. P. (2007). A Synchronic Grammar of Oriya. CIIL, Mysore.
Neukom, L. & Patnaik, M. (2003). A Grammar of Oriya. ASAS, Universität Zürich.
Ohala, M. (1983). Aspects of Hindi Grammar. Manohar.
Pandharipande, R. V. (1997). Marathi. Routledge Descriptive Grammars.
Platts, J. T. (1874). A Grammar of the Hindustani or Urdu Language. W. H. Allen.
Prasad, S. (2008 [1966]). Magahī Phonology: A Descriptive Study. Concept.
Radice, W. (2003). Teach Yourself Bengali. Hodder & Stoughton.
Ray, P. S., Hai, M. A. & Ray, L. (1966). Bengali Language Handbook. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Ray, T. S. (2003). "Oriya." In Cardona & Jain (eds.), 485–522. Routledge.
Schmidt, R. L. (1999). Urdu: An Essential Grammar. Routledge.
Shackle, C. (1972). Punjabi. Teach Yourself Books.
Shackle, C. (1976). The Siraiki Language of Central Pakistan: A Reference Grammar. SOAS.
Shackle, C. (2003). "Panjabi." In Cardona & Jain (eds.), 581–621. Routledge.
Shapiro, M. C. (2003). "Hindi." In Cardona & Jain (eds.), 250–285. Routledge.
Sharma, D. D. (1995). Tribal Languages of Himachal Pradesh, Part I. Eastern Book Linkers.
Sharma, D. N. (1981). Chhattisgarhi Bhasha: Ek Adhyayan. Chhattisgarhi Academy.
Shukla, S. (1981). Bhojpuri Grammar. Georgetown University Press.
Singh, U. N. (2007). Maithili Grammar. Lincom Europa.
Snell, R. & Weightman, S. (2003). Teach Yourself Hindi. Hodder & Stoughton.
Subbarao, K. V. (2012). South Asian Languages: A Syntactic Typology. Cambridge University Press.
Thompson, H.-R. (2012). Bengali. LOALL 18. John Benjamins.
Tisdall, W. St. C. (1892). A Simplified Grammar of the Gujarati Language. (Internet Archive).
Tiwari, U. N. (1960). The Origin and Development of Bhojpuri / Awadhi bhāṣā aur sāhitya. Asiatic Society / Hindi Sahitya Sammelan.
Tolstaya, N. I. (1981). The Panjabi Language: A Descriptive Grammar. Routledge.
Trumpp, E. (1872). Grammar of the Sindhi Language. Trübner.
Verma, M. K. (1991). "Magahi." In Kachru & Sridhar (eds.), Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press.
Verma, M. K. (2003). "Awadhi" / "Bhojpuri." In Cardona & Jain (eds.). Routledge.
Verma, S. (1985). The Structure of the Magahi Verb. Manohar.
Verma, S. (2003). "Magahi." In Cardona & Jain (eds.), 547–565. Routledge.
Wali, K. & Koul, O. N. (2006). Marathi. Lincom Europa.
Yadav, R. (1996). A Reference Grammar of Maithili. Mouton de Gruyter.
Yadav, R. (2003). "Maithili." In Cardona & Jain (eds.), 523–546. Routledge.
Yegorova, R. P. (1971). The Sindhi Language. Nauka.

Indo-European — Iranian 10

David, A. B. (2014). Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects. Mouton de Gruyter.
Elfenbein, J. (1997). "Pashto." In Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum.
Lazard, G. (1992). A Grammar of Contemporary Persian. Mazda.
Mace, J. (2003). Persian Grammar: For Reference and Revision. RoutledgeCurzon.
Mahootian, S. (1997). Persian. Routledge Descriptive Grammars.
Penzl, H. (1955). A Grammar of Pashto: A Descriptive Study of the Dialect of Kandahar. ACLS.
Robson, B. & Tegey, H. (2009). "Pashto." In Windfuhr (ed.), The Iranian Languages. Routledge.
Tegey, H. & Robson, B. (1996). A Reference Grammar of Pashto. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Windfuhr, G. L. (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of its Study. Mouton.
Yousef, S. (2018). Persian: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge.

Sino-Tibetan 27

Bauer, R. S. & Benedict, P. K. (1997). Modern Cantonese Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter.
Bào, H. & Cuī, Z. (2006). 湖南方言概要 (A Survey of Hunan Dialects). Húnán Shīfàn Dàxué.
Chao, Y. R. (1968). A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. University of California Press.
Chappell, H. & Lamarre, C. (2019). A Grammar and Lexicon of Hakka: Historical Materials from the Basel Mission Library. INALCO/HAL.
Chen, H. (2010). 长沙方言研究 (Studies on the Changsha Dialect). Húnán Jiàoyù.
Cheung, S. H. (1986). A descriptive phonology of present-day Cantonese. PhD diss., University of California.
Hashimoto, M. J. (1973). The Hakka Dialect: A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon. Cambridge University Press.
Huang, C.-T. J., Li, Y.-H. A. & Li, Y. (2009). The Syntax of Chinese. Cambridge University Press.
Klöter, H. (2005). Written Taiwanese. Harrassowitz.
Kurpaska, M. (2010). Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects". de Gruyter.
Li, C. N. & Thompson, S. A. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar. University of California Press.
Li, D. & Cheng, M. (2008). A Practical Chinese Grammar for Foreigners. Sinolingua.
Li, X. (2018). A Grammar of Gan Chinese: The Yichun Language. de Gruyter Mouton.
Liu, Y., Pan, W. & Gu, W. (2001). Shiyong xiandai Hanyu yufa (2nd ed.). Commercial Press.
Matthews, S. & Yip, V. (1994/2011). Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar (1st/2nd ed.). Routledge.
Norman, J. (1988). Chinese. Cambridge University Press.
Qian, N. (1997). 上海話語法 (Grammar of Shanghainese). Shanghai Education Press.
Ross, C. & Ma, J.-h. S. (2006). Modern Mandarin Chinese Grammar: A Practical Guide. Routledge.
Sun, C. (2006). Chinese: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Wiedenhof, J. (2015). A Grammar of Mandarin. John Benjamins.
Wu, Y. (2005). A Synchronic and Diachronic Study of the Grammar of the Chinese Xiang Dialects. Mouton de Gruyter.
Xióng, Z. (1995). 南昌方言词典 (Dictionary of the Nanchang Dialect). Jiangsu Education.
Yan, M. M. (2006). Introduction to Chinese Dialects. LINCOM Europa.
Yip, P.-C. & Rimmington, D. (2004). Chinese: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge.
Yuán, J. et al. (2001). 汉语方言概要 (Outline of Chinese Dialects) (2nd ed.). Yǔwén.
Zhu, D. (1982). Yufa jiangyi (Lectures on Grammar). Commercial Press.
Zhu, X. (2006). A Grammar of Shanghai Wu. LINCOM (LSASL 66).

Mainland Southeast Asian (Tai, Mon-Khmer, Vietic, Tibeto-Burman) 14

Cooke, J. R. (1989). Thai Sentence Particles and Other Topics. Pacific Linguistics A-80.
Haiman, J. & Ourn, N. (2011). A Grammar of Colloquial Khmer. de Gruyter Mouton.
Headley, R. K. et al. (1977). Cambodian-English Dictionary. 2 vols. Catholic University of America Press.
Higbie, J. & Thinsan, S. (2002). Thai Reference Grammar: The Structure of Spoken Thai. Orchid Press.
Huffman, F. E. (1970). Cambodian System of Writing and Beginning Reader. Yale University Press.
Iwasaki, S. & Ingkaphirom, P. (2005). A Reference Grammar of Thai. Cambridge University Press.
Jacob, J. M. (1968). Introduction to Cambodian. Oxford University Press.
Ngo, B. N. (2020). Vietnamese: An Essential Grammar. Routledge.
Nguyễn, Đ.-H. (1997). Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn. John Benjamins.
Noss, R. B. (1964). Thai Reference Grammar. Foreign Service Institute.
Phan, T. (2024). The Syntax of Vietnamese Tense, Aspect, and Negation. Routledge.
Smyth, D. (2014). Thai: An Essential Grammar (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Thompson, L. C. (1965). A Vietnamese Grammar. University of Washington Press.
Tran, T. C. (2024). Essential Vietnamese Grammar. Tuttle.

Austronesian 43

Adelaar, K. A. & Himmelmann, N. P. (eds.) (2005). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge.
Alwi, H., Dardjowidjojo, S., Lapoliwa, H. & Moeliono, A. M. (2014). Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia (4th ed.). Balai Pustaka.
Coolsma, S. (1904). Soendaneesche Spraakkunst. (Reissued as Tata Bahasa Sunda.)
Dez, J. (1980a). La syntaxe du malgache. Champion.
Dez, J. (1980b). Structures de la langue malgache. POF.
Djajasudarma, T. F., Gunardi, G. & Darsa, U. A. (1994). Tata Bahasa Acuan Bahasa Sunda. Dep. Pend. dan Kebud.
Djenar, D. N. (2003). A Student's Guide to Indonesian Grammar. Oxford University Press.
Englebretson, R. (2003). Searching for Structure: The Problem of Complementation in Colloquial Indonesian Conversation. John Benjamins.
Garvey, C. J. (1964). A Sketch of Malagasy Grammar. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Hardjadibrata, R. R. (1985). Sundanese: A Syntactical Analysis. Pacific Linguistics D-65.
Himmelmann, N. P. (2005). "Tagalog." In Adelaar & Himmelmann (eds.), 350–376. Routledge.
Horne, E. C. (1961). Beginning Javanese. Yale University Press.
Kats, J. & Soeriadiradja, M. (1982). Tata Bahasa dan Ungkapan Bahasa Sunda. Djambatan.
Keenan, E. L. & Polinsky, M. (1998). "Malagasy (Austronesian)." In Spencer & Zwicky (eds.), The Handbook of Morphology, 563–624. Blackwell.
Kroeger, P. R. (1993). Phrase Structure and Grammatical Relations in Tagalog. CSLI Publications.
Mintz, M. W. (1994). A Student's Grammar of Malay and Indonesian. EPB.
Müller-Gotama, F. (2001). Sundanese. LINCOM (LWM 369).
Nik Safiah Karim et al. (2008). Tatabahasa Dewan (3rd ed.). Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ogloblin, A. K. (2005). "Javanese." In Adelaar & Himmelmann (eds.). Routledge.
Ouvrard, L. & Rajaonarimanana, N. (2012). Méthode de malgache. L'Asiathèque.
Parker, G. W. (1883). A Concise Grammar of the Malagasy Language. Trübner.
Paul, I. M. (2000). Malagasy Clause Structure. PhD diss., McGill University.
Pearson, M. (2001). The Clause Structure of Malagasy. PhD diss., UCLA.
Rajaona, S. (1972). Structure du malgache: étude des formes prédicatives. Ambozontany.
Rajaonarimanana, N. (1995/2001). Grammaire moderne de la langue malgache. L'Asiathèque.
Rajemisa-Raolison, R. (1969/1971). Grammaire malgache: enseignement secondaire. Ambozontany.
Ramelan (1983). Javanese Indicative and Imperative Passives. Pacific Linguistics.
Ramos, T. V. (1971). Tagalog Structures. University of Hawaii Press.
Ramos, T. V. & Cena, R. M. (1990). Modern Tagalog. University of Hawaii Press.
Randriamasimanana, C. (1986). The Causatives of Malagasy. University of Hawaii Press.
Rasoloson, J. & Rubino, C. (2004). "Malagasy." In Adelaar & Himmelmann (eds.), 456–488. Routledge.
Robins, R. H. (1959). "Nominal and Verbal Derivation in Sundanese." Lingua 8: 337–369.
Robson, S. (2014). Javanese Grammar for Students (3rd ed.). Monash University Publishing.
Robson, S. & Wibisono, S. (2002). Javanese English Dictionary. Periplus.
Schachter, P. & Otanes, F. T. (1972). Tagalog Reference Grammar. University of California Press.
Sneddon, J. N. (1996). Indonesian: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge.
Sneddon, J. N. (2000). Understanding Indonesian Grammar. Allen & Unwin.
Sneddon, J. N. (2006). Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian. Pacific Linguistics, ANU.
Sneddon, J. N., Adelaar, A., Djenar, D. N. & Ewing, M. C. (2010). Indonesian Reference Grammar (2nd ed.). Allen & Unwin.
Suhandano (1994). A Grammar of Javanese. PhD diss., University of New Mexico.
Uhlenbeck, E. M. (1978). Studies in Javanese Morphology. KITLV.
Wedhawati et al. (2006). Tata Bahasa Jawa Mutakhir. Kanisius.
Winstedt, R. O. (1913). Malay Grammar. Clarendon.

Afro-Asiatic — Semitic (Arabic varieties + Amharic) 53

Abdel-Massih, E. T., Abdel-Malek, Z. N. & Badawi, E. M. (1979/2009). A Reference Grammar of Egyptian Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Amberber, M. (2023). "Amharic." In Meyer, Wakjira & Leyew (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ethiopian Languages, 414–442. Oxford University Press.
Appleyard, D. (1995/2015). Colloquial Amharic. Routledge.
Armbruster, C. H. (1908–20). Initia Amharica. 3 vols. Cambridge University Press.
Badawi, E.-S. & Hinds, M. (1986). A Dictionary of Egyptian Arabic. Librairie du Liban.
Behnstedt, P. & Woidich, M. (1985). Die ägyptisch-arabischen Dialekte. 5 vols. Reichert.
Behnstedt, P. & Woidich, M. (2005). Arabische Dialektgeographie. Brill.
Bergman, E. M. (2002). Spoken Sudanese Arabic: Grammar, Dialogues, and Glossary. Dunwoody.
Bergman, E. M. (2005). Spoken Algerian Arabic. Dunwoody.
Boucherit, A. (2002). L'arabe parlé à Alger. Peeters.
Brustad, K. E. (2000). The Syntax of Spoken Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Caubet, D. (1993). L'arabe marocain. 2 vols. Peeters.
Cohen, M. (1936/1995). Traité de langue amharique. Institut d'Ethnologie.
Cowell, M. W. (2005). A Reference Grammar of Syrian Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Cowley, R., Bender, M. L., Ferguson, C. A., Fulass, H. & Haile, G. (1976). "The Amharic Language." In Bender et al. (eds.), Language in Ethiopia, 77–98. Oxford University Press.
Dawkins, C. H. (1969). The Fundamentals of Amharic. Sudan Interior Mission.
Demeke, G. A. (2014). Grammatical Changes in Semitic: A Diachronic Grammar of Amharic. Red Sea Press.
Dickins, J. (2007). "Khartoum Arabic." In Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics. Brill.
Eisele, J. C. (1999). Arabic Verbs in Time: Tense and Aspect in Cairene Arabic. Harrassowitz.
Ennaji, M., Sadiqi, F. et al. (2004). A Grammar of Moroccan Arabic. Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah.
Erwin, W. M. (1963). A Short Reference Grammar of Iraqi Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Gary, J. O. & Gamal-Eldin, S. (1982). Cairene Egyptian Colloquial Arabic. North-Holland.
Harrell, R. S. (1962). A Short Reference Grammar of Moroccan Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Harrell, R. S. (2004 [1966]). A Dictionary of Moroccan Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Hartmann, J. (1980). Amharische Grammatik. Steiner.
Hassan, M. K. Keda Mazbuut: A Grammar Book of Egyptian Colloquial Arabic. AUC Press.
Heath, J. (2002). Jewish and Muslim Dialects of Moroccan Arabic. RoutledgeCurzon.
Hillelson, S. (1935). Sudan Arabic Texts. Cambridge University Press.
Hitchcock, C. (2024). A Learner's Grammar of Levantine Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Holes, C. (1990). Gulf Arabic. Routledge.
Holes, C. (2004). Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties (rev. ed.). Georgetown University Press.
Ingham, B. (1994). Najdi Arabic: Central Arabian. John Benjamins.
Johnstone, T. M. (1967). Eastern Arabian Dialect Studies. Oxford University Press.
Khalafallah, A. A. (1969). A Descriptive Grammar of Ṣaʻīdī Egyptian Colloquial Arabic. Mouton.
Leslau, W. (1967). Amharic Textbook. Harrassowitz.
Leslau, W. (1969). An Amharic Reference Grammar. UCLA.
Leslau, W. (1995). Reference Grammar of Amharic. Harrassowitz.
Leslau, W. (2000). Introductory Grammar of Amharic. Harrassowitz.
Liddicoat, A. J. & Lennane, R. B. (2011). An Introduction to Syrian Colloquial Arabic. Dunwoody.
Marçais, W. (1902). Le dialecte arabe parlé à Tlemcen. Leroux.
Meyer, R. (2011). "Amharic." In Weninger et al. (eds.), The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. de Gruyter Mouton.
Mitchell, T. F. (1956). An Introduction to Egyptian Colloquial Arabic. Oxford University Press.
Moscoso García, F. (2004). Esbozo gramatical del árabe marroquí. Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha.
Praetorius, F. (1879). Die amharische Sprache. Halle (repr. Olms).
Prochazka, T. (1988). Saudi Arabian Dialects. Kegan Paul.
Stowasser, K. & Ani, M. (2004). A Dictionary of Syrian Arabic: English–Arabic. Georgetown University Press.
Teferra, A. & Hudson, G. (2007). Essentials of Amharic. Köppe.
Trimingham, J. S. (1946). Sudanese Colloquial Arabic. Oxford University Press.
Ullendorff, E. (1955). The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia. Taylor's Foreign Press.
Versteegh, K. (2001). The Arabic Language. Edinburgh University Press.
Watson, J. C. E. (2002). The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic. Oxford University Press.
Woidich, M. (2006). Das Kairenisch-Arabische: Eine Grammatik. Harrassowitz.
Worsely, A. (1925). Sudanese Grammar. SPCK.

Afro-Asiatic — Cushitic / Omotic 25

Ali, M. & Zaborski, A. (1990). Handbook of the Oromo Language. Steiner / PAN.
Allan, E. J. (1976). "Mocha." In Bender (ed.), The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia, 553–587. Michigan State University.
Andrzejewski, B. W. & Lewis, I. M. (1964). Somali Poetry: An Introduction. Clarendon.
Baye, Y. (1986). The Phrase Structure of Ethiopian Oromo. PhD diss., SOAS.
Bender, M. L. (ed.) (1976). The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia. Michigan State University.
Breeze, M. J. (1988). "A sketch of Mocha phonology." Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere 14: 1–38.
Green, C. R. (2021). Somali Grammar. de Gruyter Mouton.
Griefenow-Mewis, C. (2001). A Grammatical Sketch of Written Oromo. Köppe.
Griefenow-Mewis, C. & Bitima, T. (1994). Lehrbuch des Oromo. Köppe.
Hayward, R. J. (ed.) (1990). Omotic Language Studies. SOAS.
Hodson, A. W. & Walker, C. H. (1922). An Elementary and Practical Grammar of the Galla or Oromo Language. SPCK.
Leslau, W. (1959). "The verb in Mocha (Moca)." JAOS 79(1): 22–42.
Mous, M. (2012). "Cushitic." In Frajzyngier & Shay (eds.), The Afroasiatic Languages. Cambridge University Press.
Nilsson, M. (2025). Learner's Somali Grammar. University of Gothenburg.
Orwin, M. (1995). Colloquial Somali. Routledge.
Owens, J. (1985). A Grammar of Harar Oromo. Buske.
Saeed, J. I. (1982). Central Somali: A Grammatical Outline. Undena.
Saeed, J. I. (1993). Somali Reference Grammar (2nd rev. ed.). Dunwoody.
Saeed, J. I. (1999). Somali. LOALL 10. John Benjamins.
Stroomer, H. (1987). A Comparative Study of Three Southern Oromo Dialects in Kenya. Buske.
Stroomer, H. (1995). A Grammar of Boraana Oromo (Kenya). Köppe.
Tosco, M. (2020). "Oromo." In Meyer et al. (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ethiopian Languages. Oxford University Press.
Tucho, A. et al. Oromo Newspaper Reader, Grammar Sketch, and Lexicon. Afaan Oromoo Books.
Zorc, R. D. & Issa, A. A. (1990). Somali Textbook. Dunwoody.
Zorc, R. D. & Osman, M. M. (1993). Somali–English Dictionary. Dunwoody.

Afro-Asiatic — Chadic (Hausa) 7

Abraham, R. C. (1959). The Language of the Hausa People. University of London Press.
Abu-Manga, A.-A. (1999). Hausa in the Sudan: Process of Adaptation to Arabic. Köppe.
Caron, B. (1991). Le haoussa de l'Ader. Reimer.
Jaggar, P. (2001). Hausa. LOALL 7. John Benjamins.
Kraft, C. H. (1963). A Study of Hausa Syntax. 3 vols.
Newman, P. (2000). The Hausa Language: An Encyclopedic Reference Grammar. Yale University Press.
Wolff, E. (1993). Referenzgrammatik des Hausa. LIT.

Niger-Congo (Bantu, Kwa, Volta-Niger, Atlantic) 20

Adesola, O. Yorùbá: A Grammatical Sketch. Manuscript.
Arnott, D. W. (1970). The Nominal and Verbal Systems of Fula. Clarendon.
Ashton, E. O. (1944). Swahili Grammar (including Intonation). Longmans, Green.
Awobuluyi, O. (1978). Essentials of Yoruba Grammar. Oxford University Press Nigeria.
Bamgbose, A. (1966). A Grammar of Yoruba. Cambridge University Press.
Bowen, T. J. (1858). Grammatical Sketch and Vocabulary of the Yoruba Language. Smithsonian.
Emenanjo, N. (2015). A Grammar of Contemporary Igbo: Constituents, Features and Processes. M & J Grand Orbit.
Green, M. M. & Igwe, G. E. (1963). A Descriptive Grammar of Igbo. Akademie-Verlag / OUP.
Labatut, R. (1982). La phrase peule et ses transformations. Université de Paris.
McIntosh, M. (1984). Fulfulde Syntax and Verbal Morphology. KPI.
Mohammed, M. A. (2001). Modern Swahili Grammar. East African Educational Publishers.
Mpiranya, F. (2014). Swahili Grammar and Workbook. Routledge.
Nurse, D. & Hinnebusch, T. J. (1993). Swahili and Sabaki: A Linguistic History. UC Press.
Polomé, E. C. (1967). Swahili Language Handbook. Center for Applied Linguistics.
Rowlands, E. C. (1969/1993). Teach Yourself Yoruba. Hodder & Stoughton.
Stennes, L. H. (1967). A Reference Grammar of Adamawa Fulani. Michigan State University.
Ward, I. C. (1952). An Introduction to the Yoruba Language. Heffer.
Welmers, W. E. & Welmers, B. F. (1968). Igbo: A Learner's Manual. UCLA / Peace Corps.
Whiteley, W. H. (1969). Swahili: The Rise of a National Language. Methuen.
Williamson, K. & Blench, R. (eds.) (2013). Dictionary of Ọ̀nìchà Igbo (2nd ed. draft).

Turkic 15

Akin, S. (1999). A Grammar of Modern Turkmen. Türk Dil Kurumu.
Banguoğlu, T. (1986). Türkçenin Grameri. Türk Dil Kurumu.
Bodrogligeti, A. J. E. (2002). Modern Literary Uzbek, Parts 1 & 2. LINCOM.
Bodrogligeti, A. J. E. (2003). An Academic Reference Grammar of Modern Literary Uzbek. LINCOM.
Boeschoten, H. & Johanson, L. (eds.) (1998). Turkic Languages. Routledge.
Clark, L. (1998). Turkmen Reference Grammar. Harrassowitz (Turcologica 34).
Erguvanlı, E. E. (1984). The Function of Word Order in Turkish Grammar. UC Press.
Göksel, A. & Kerslake, C. (2005/2018). Turkish: A Comprehensive Grammar (1st/2nd ed.). Routledge.
Johanson, L. & Csató, É. Á. (eds.) (1998). The Turkic Languages. Routledge.
Kononov, A. N. (1960). Грамматика современного узбекского литературного языка. Moscow-Leningrad.
Kornfilt, J. (1997). Turkish. Routledge Descriptive Grammars.
Lewis, G. L. (1967/2000). Turkish Grammar. Clarendon.
Schönig, C. (1998). "Turkmen." In Johanson & Csató (eds.), 261–272. Routledge.
Sjoberg, A. F. (1963). Uzbek Structural Grammar. Indiana University Press.
Underhill, R. (1976). Turkish Grammar. MIT Press.

Dravidian 10

Asher, R. E. (1985). Tamil. Croom Helm Descriptive Grammars.
Asher, R. E. & Kumari, T. C. (1997). Malayalam. Routledge Descriptive Grammars.
Brown, C. P. (1857). A Grammar of the Telugu Language. Christian Knowledge Society.
Krishnamurti, B. (1961). Telugu Verbal Bases. UC Press.
Krishnamurti, B. (2003). The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge University Press.
Krishnamurti, B. & Gwynn, J. P. L. (1985). A Grammar of Modern Telugu. Oxford University Press.
Lehmann, T. (1993). A Grammar of Modern Tamil. Pondicherry Institute of Linguistics and Culture.
Schiffman, H. F. (1983). A Reference Grammar of Spoken Kannada. University of Washington Press.
Schiffman, H. F. (1999). A Reference Grammar of Spoken Tamil. Cambridge University Press.
Sridhar, S. N. (1990). Kannada: Descriptive Grammar. Routledge.

Mayan 12

Andrade, M. J. (1955). A Grammar of Modern Yucatec. University of Chicago Library Microreproduction.
Ayres, G. & Pfeiler, B. (1997). Los Verbos Mayas: La conjugación en el maya yucateco moderno. Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán.
Beltrán de Santa Rosa, P. (1746). [Yucatec Maya grammar].
Bohnemeyer, J. (2002). The Grammar of Time Reference in Yukatek Maya. LINCOM.
Bolles, D. & Bolles, A. (2014). A Grammar and Anthology of the Yucatecan Mayan Language (rev. ed.).
Bricker, V., Po'ot Yah, E. & Dzul de Po'ot, O. (1998). A Dictionary of the Maya Language as Spoken in Hocabá. University of Utah Press.
Bricker, V. R. (2019). A Historical Grammar of the Maya Language of Yucatan: 1557–2000. University of Utah Press.
Briceño Chel, F. (2007/2021). Los verbos del maya yucateco actual. INALI.
Coronel, J. (1620). [Yucatec Maya grammar].
Gabriel de San Buenaventura (1996 [1684]). [Yucatec Maya grammar sketch].
Tozzer, A. M. (1921). A Maya Grammar. Peabody Museum.
Yoshida, S. (2014). Guía gramatical de la lengua maya yucateca para hispanohablantes (3rd ed.). Tohoku University.

Japanese / Korean 19

Banno, E. et al. (2020). Genki: An Integrated Course in Elementary Japanese (3rd ed.). Japan Times.
Byon, A. S. (2017). Modern Korean Grammar: A Practical Guide. Routledge.
Choo, M. & Kwak, H.-Y. (2008). Using Korean: A Guide to Contemporary Usage. Cambridge University Press.
Hasegawa, Y. (2015). Japanese: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
Iwasaki, S. (2013). Japanese (rev. ed.). John Benjamins.
Kaiser, S., Ichikawa, Y., Kobayashi, N. & Yamamoto, H. (2001). Japanese: A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge.
Kuno, S. (1973). The Structure of the Japanese Language. MIT Press.
Kuno, S. (1978). Danwa no Bunpo. Taishukan.
Makino, S. & Tsutsui, M. (1986). A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar. Japan Times.
Makino, S. & Tsutsui, M. (1995). A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar. Japan Times.
Makino, S. & Tsutsui, M. (2008). A Dictionary of Advanced Japanese Grammar. Japan Times.
Martin, S. E. (1975). A Reference Grammar of Japanese. Yale University Press.
Martin, S. E. (2006). A Reference Grammar of Korean. Tuttle.
Maynard, S. K. (1997). Japanese Communication: Language and Thought in Context. University of Hawaiʻi Press.
Miyagawa, S. (1989). Structure and Case Marking in Japanese. Academic Press.
Shibatani, M. (1990). The Languages of Japan. Cambridge University Press.
Tsujimura, N. (2014). An Introduction to Japanese Linguistics (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell.
Wetzel, P. J. (2004). Keigo in Modern Japan. University of Hawaiʻi Press.
Yeon, J. & Brown, L. (2019). Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Cross-family / general typology 1

Comrie, B. (ed.) (2009). The World's Major Languages (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Journal articles, dissertations, and chapters in edited volumes 119

Aboh, E. O. (2010). "The Morphosyntax of the Noun Phrase." In Aboh & Essegbey (eds.), Topics in Kwa Syntax. Springer.
Adesola, O. & Safir, K. (2005). "Referential dependencies in Yoruba." Manuscript.
Akinwande, D. (2025). "Focus in Ohori Yoruba."
Alok, D. (2020). Speaker and addressee in natural language: Honorificity, indexicality and their interaction in Magahi. PhD diss., Rutgers.
Alok, D. (2021). "The morphosyntax of Magahi addressee agreement." Syntax 24(3): 263–296.
Alok, D. & Baker, M. (2022). "Person and Honorification: Features and Interactions in Magahi." Glossa.
Amritavalli, R. & Jayaseelan, K. A. (2005). "Finiteness and Negation in Dravidian." In The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Syntax. Oxford University Press.
AnderBois, S. (2012). "Focus and Uninformativity in Yucatec Maya Questions." Natural Language Semantics 20(4): 349–390.
Archangeli, D. & Pulleyblank, D. (2018). "Emergent phonology illustrated: Malagasy alternations." McGill WPL 25(1).
Arka, I. W. (2003). Balinese Morphosyntax: A Lexical-Functional Approach. Pacific Linguistics.
Arka, I. W. & Manning, C. D. (2008). "Voice and grammatical relations in Indonesian."
Arka, I. W. & Ross, M. (eds.) (2005). The Many Faces of Austronesian Voice Systems. Pacific Linguistics.
Baart, J. L. G. (2003). "Tonal features in languages of northern Pakistan." SIL EWP 2003-001 / NIPS.
Baart, J. L. G. (2004). "Gojri." In Baart & Faizi (eds.), Pakistani Languages and Society. NIPS / SIL.
Babarinde, O. & Ahamefula, N. (2013). "Tonal Sandhi in the Yoruba Language." Research on Humanities and Social Sciences 3(12): 133–136.
Bahri, U. (1994). Seraiki-English Dictionary. SOAS.
Balogun, B. (2021). Examining Evidence for Passive in Yoruba. MA diss., University of Cape Town.
Bisang, W. & Sonaiya, R. (1999/2000). "Information structuring in Yoruba." Linguistics 38.1.
Bohnemeyer, J. (1998). "Temporal Reference without Tense?" In Semantics of Tense, Aspect and Modality. Rodopi.
Bruening, B. & Tran, T. H. (2015). "Vietnamese bị and được are not passives." Lingua 165: 133–172.
Butt, M. & King, T. H. (2004). "The Status of Case." In Dayal & Mahajan (eds.), Clause Structure in South Asian Languages. Kluwer.
Chappell, H. (2001). "Synchrony and diachrony of Sinitic languages." In Sinitic Grammar: Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives. Oxford University Press.
Chappell, H. & Lan, L. (2016). "Mandarin and Other Sinitic Languages." In The Routledge Encyclopedia of the Chinese Language.
Chappell, H. & Peyraube, A. (2016). "A Typological Study of Negation in Sinitic Languages." In New Horizons in the Study of Chinese. CUHK.
Chen, M. Y. (2004). "The Paradox of Hakka Tone Sandhi." ROA-658.
Cheng, L. & Sybesma, R. (1999). "Bare and not-so-bare nouns and the structure of NP." Linguistic Inquiry 30(4): 509–542.
Cheng, R. L. (1985). "A Comparison of Taiwanese, Taiwan Mandarin, and Peking Mandarin." Language 61(2): 352–377.
Chung, S. (1976). "An object-creating rule in Bahasa Indonesia." Linguistic Inquiry 7(1): 41–87.
Cole, P. & Hermon, G. (1998). "The typology of wh-movement: Wh-questions in Malay." Syntax 1(3): 221–258.
Coon, J. & Preminger, O. "Agreement, case and ergativity splits in Punjabi, compared to Kurdish."
Davison, A. (1999). "Ergativity: Functional and Formal Issues." In Darnell et al. (eds.), Functionalism and Formalism in Linguistics, vol. 1. John Benjamins.
De Guzman, V. P. (1978). "Syntactic Derivation of Tagalog Verbs." Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication.
Denistia, K. & Baayen, R. H. (2021). "The morphology of Indonesian: Data and quantitative modeling."
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