引用与数据来源

mossyrune 使用采用自由许可的语言学数据集和开放获取的研究成果。本页逐一列出每个数据来源、其许可协议，以及它在本站的使用位置。

Glottolog

CC-BY 4.0 glottolog.org

关于世界语言的综合性参考资料，由马克斯·普朗克进化人类学研究所维护。我们依据其 Agglomerated Endangerment Status（AES，综合濒危状态）划分各语言的活力等级。

所用数据

  • AES 濒危等级（未濒危、受威胁、正在转移、垂危、几近消亡、已消亡）

使用位置

  • 对比表 → 状态部分（活力、趋势）

Hammarström, Harald & Forkel, Robert & Haspelmath, Martin & Bank, Sebastian. 2024. Glottolog 5.1. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.

URIEL+

学术许可（须引用论文） GitHub

涵盖数千种语言的类型学、音系学和谱系学数据库，在原有 URIEL 数据库的基础上增加了更多特征。

所用数据

  • 句法特征（语序、主语省略、冠词、形容词与数词的位置）
  • 音系特征（声调、搭嘴音、挤喉音、内爆音、小舌音）
  • 形态特征（性、名词格、礼貌区分）
  • 用于计算语言相似度的谱系与类型学向量

使用位置

  • 对比表 → 类型学（URIEL+）部分
  • 语言相似度分数（内部计算）

Littell, Patrick, et al. "URIEL and lang2vec: Representing languages as typological, phylogenetic, and geographical vectors." Proceedings of the 15th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 2017.

PHOIBLE 2.0

CC BY 4.0 phoible.org

收录世界语言音位清单的跨语言数据库。PHOIBLE 2.0 包含 2,186 种语言的 3,020 份音位清单，资料来自描写语法、类型学数据库和田野调查。

所用数据

  • 是否为声调语言，即该语言是否以声调区分词汇或语法意义
  • 是否有搭嘴音，即音位清单中是否包含搭嘴音音位（ǀ ǁ ǃ ǂ ʘ）
  • 覆盖本站语言目录中约 1,205 种语言（先按 ISO 639-3 匹配，再按 Glottocode 匹配）

使用位置

  • 对比表 → 类型学部分（声调、搭嘴音）
  • 探索一门语言 → 音系筛选（声调、搭嘴音）

Moran, Steven & McCloy, Daniel (eds.) 2019. PHOIBLE 2.0. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. 在线访问： phoible.org.

Grambank

CC BY 4.0 grambank.clld.org

关于世界语言结构（语法）特征的全球性数据库，由 100 多位语言学家共同编制。Grambank 涵盖 2,467 种语言，其 195 项特征均取自已出版的语法著作。

所用数据

  • 句法特征（语序、形容词与数词的位置、冠词、主语省略）
  • 形态特征（名词格、性、双数、包括式与排除式、礼貌）
  • 为 URIEL+ 未覆盖的约 476 种语言补充语法数据

使用位置

  • 对比表 → 类型学（URIEL+）部分
  • 探索一门语言 → 语法筛选（语序、性、格等）

Skirgård, Hedvig et al. 2023. Grambank reveals the importance of genealogical constraints on linguistic diversity and is itself well-explained by geography. Science Advances 9(eadg6175). doi:10.1126/sciadv.adg6175

Glottography / Asher 2007 World Atlas

CC-BY 4.0 GitHub

取自 Atlas of the World's Languages（第 2 版，Routledge，2007）的母语者分布区数字化多边形。地图显示的是各语言的传统使用区域，而非政治边界。

所用数据

  • 母语者分布区的多边形几何数据（约 3,612 种语言，共约 4,686 个要素）
  • 各语言的地理面积（km²）：用球面线积分公式根据多边形几何计算，再把同一语言的所有要素相加
  • 从要素元数据中提取的濒危等级（AES）和所在国家

使用位置

  • 探索标签页 → 地图图层
  • geojson-metadata.json 中的语言面积（km²）数据，可用于语言概况和统计
  • 语言活力（AES）和地理区域筛选

Asher, R.E. & Moseley, Christopher (eds.). 2007. Atlas of the World's Languages. 2nd edn. London: Routledge. 由 Glottography / CLDF 数字化。

etymology-db (Wiktionary)

CC-BY-SA 3.0 GitHub

从维基词典提取的结构化词源数据，记录语言之间的词汇借用关系。我们用它识别因历史接触和借用而共有的词汇。

所用数据

  • 语言对之间词汇借用的比例和数量

使用位置

  • 语言相似度计算（借词加分项）

Natural Earth

公有领域 naturalearthdata.com

免费的矢量和栅格地图数据，比例尺为 1:10m、1:50m 和 1:110m。地球仪和地图中的国界多边形即来自这里。

所用数据

  • 国界多边形（110m 和 50m 分辨率，TopoJSON 格式）

使用位置

  • 地球仪与地图 → 国界和底图

Unicode CLDR

Unicode 许可（允许商业使用） cldr.unicode.org

Unicode 通用区域数据库（Common Locale Data Repository）提供语言与文字的对应关系以及各书写系统的属性。各语言所用文字的判定依据 CLDR 数据和 Unicode 区块分析。

所用数据

  • 各语言使用的文字（拉丁字母、西里尔字母、阿拉伯字母、天城文等）
  • 书写方向、大小写区分和字符数量

使用位置

  • 对比表 → 书写系统部分

Omniglot

版权所有（依据合理使用原则使用数据） omniglot.com

由 Simon Ager 维护的书写系统与语言在线百科。Omniglot 记录世界各语言的文字、正字法和书写历史，涵盖数百种书写系统，并为每种语言提供详细条目。

所用数据

  • 为 Unicode CLDR 未覆盖的约 250 种少数民族语言和地区语言确定所用文字
  • 核实多文字语言的主要文字与次要文字
  • 历史和现行正字法信息（例如埃塞俄比亚诸语言使用吉兹字母还是拉丁字母，帕哈里-波特瓦里语使用沙赫穆基字母）

使用位置

  • 对比表 → 书写系统部分（少数民族语言的文字判定）

Ager, Simon. Omniglot — The Online Encyclopedia of Writing Systems & Languages. 访问地址： omniglot.com. 并与维基百科各语言条目及 SIL International 的 ScriptSource 进行交叉核对 (scriptsource.org).

Wikidata

CC0（公有领域） wikidata.org

提供语言结构化数据的免费知识库，包括语言在各国和国际组织中的官方地位。我们通过 SPARQL 查询了约 1,878 种语言的使用人数（P1098）。

所用数据

  • 官方语言地位（联合国、欧盟及其他国际组织）
  • 使用人数（P1098）及其估算年份

使用位置

  • 对比表 → 状态部分（官方地位）
  • 探索一门语言 → “所有语言”的提示框（使用人数）

Wikipedia

CC-BY-SA 4.0 en.wikipedia.org

对于 Wikidata 中没有结构化使用人数数据的约 2,500 种语言，我们从维基百科语言条目的信息框中提取使用人数。这些信息框通常引用人口普查数据和 Ethnologue。

所用数据

  • 语言条目信息框中的使用人数

使用位置

  • 探索一门语言 → “所有语言”的提示框（使用人数）

EF English Proficiency Index

版权所有 ef.com/epi

按英语水平对各国家和地区进行的年度排名，依据全球数百万成年人的测试数据。我们用它估算缺乏调查数据的国家的英语掌握比例。

所用数据

  • 各国英语水平

使用位置

  • 语言触达计算（按国家估算的双语比例）

EF Education First. (2024). EF English Proficiency Index. Signum International AG.

Eurobarometer 540

CC BY 4.0 europa.eu

欧盟范围内关于语言知识与语言态度的调查，涵盖各成员国对所有欧盟官方语言的掌握比例。

所用数据

  • 欧盟各成员国的语言掌握比例

使用位置

  • 语言触达计算（欧洲双语数据）

European Commission. (2024). Special Eurobarometer 540: Europeans and their Languages. Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture.

Ethnologue

专有（SIL International） ethnologue.com

收录所有已知现存语言的综合性参考资料，提供使用人数估计和各语言在各国的分布数据。

所用数据

  • 总使用人数、母语者人数和第二语言使用者人数
  • 各语言在各国的分布

使用位置

  • 语言触达计算、使用人数统计

Eberhard, David M., Gary F. Simons & Charles D. Fennig (eds.). 2024. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-seventh edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International.

British Council

版权所有 britishcouncil.org

关于全球英语学习和英语水平的研究与出版物，为其他调查未覆盖的国家提供估计数据。

所用数据

  • 欧洲以外国家的英语水平估计

使用位置

  • 语言触达计算

British Council. Research and Insight: Languages. British Council.

Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF)

版权所有 francophonie.org

关于法语在全球使用状况的报告，包括使用人数、掌握程度和按国家的分布。

所用数据

  • 各国法语使用人数和掌握程度数据

使用位置

  • 语言触达计算

Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. (2022). La langue française dans le monde: 2019–2022. Paris: Gallimard.

WALS Online (World Atlas of Language Structures)

CC BY 4.0 wals.info

记录语言结构特征（音系、语法和词汇）的大型数据库，由 55 位以上作者根据描写性资料编纂而成。

所用数据

  • 用于语言分类的类型学特征

使用位置

  • 语言触达计算

Dryer, Matthew S. & Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). 2013. WALS Online (v2020.4). Zenodo. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.13950591.

语言学文献（互通度）

学术文献 / Wikipedia CC-BY-SA 4.0 Wikipedia

互通度数据综合自比较语言学文献、维基百科语系条目和已发表的实证研究，涵盖罗曼、日耳曼、斯拉夫、突厥、印度-雅利安、阿拉伯、达罗毗荼、南岛、凯尔特、班图和库希特等语族中约 186 种语言之间的互通关系。

所用数据

  • 亲属语言对之间的互通程度（very_high / high / moderate / low）
  • 保留了不对称关系。例如，葡萄牙语使用者听懂西班牙语，比西班牙语使用者听懂葡萄牙语更容易。

使用位置

  • 对比表 → “可互通”一行

Gooskens, Charlotte. (2007). The contribution of linguistic factors to the intelligibility of closely related languages. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 28(6), 445–467.
Tang, C., & Van Heuven, V.J. (2009). Mutual intelligibility of Chinese dialects experimentally tested. Lingua 119(5), 709–732.
Wikipedia contributors. Mutual intelligibility. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. CC-BY-SA 4.0.

UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

UNESCO 版权 UNESCO

世界濒危语言的综合清单，濒危等级从“脆弱”到“已灭绝”。

所用数据

  • 语言濒危等级

使用位置

  • 语言触达计算

Moseley, Christopher (ed.). 2010. Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. 3rd edition. Paris: UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-104096-2.

参考语法（各语言的学术来源）

多种学术著作

mossyrune 的语法讲解、语法机制构建器和语言概览页面描述了每种语言的语法结构。这些描述参考了下列已出版的描写语法和参考语法（共 511 部）。语序、词形变化表的结构、助词的用法等语法事实本身不受版权保护，但记录这些事实的学者理应得到署名。

各语言的来源清单也写在 src/lib/data/grammar/ 中每个语法文件和 src/lib/data/mechanisms/ 中每个机制文件的开头，研究笔记则在 docs/references/ 中。

印欧语系 — 罗曼语族 34
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印欧语系 — 日耳曼语族 27
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印欧语系 — 印度-雅利安语支 60
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