Pashto grammar, step by step
A guided tour through Pashto grammar with glossed examples that show how each piece of a sentence fits together.
Grammar Walkthrough
Discover how the language works through examples
Pashto grammar is built on split ergativity — verbs obey the subject in the present but flip to obey the object in the past — layered with grammatical gender, a four-case system, and postpositions that reshape nouns before them.
The verb comes last
SOV word orderWhere does the verb sit in each sentence? What comes between the subject and the verb?
Pashto is a Subject-Object-Verb language. The verb always comes at the end, and the object sits between the subject and the verb. This is the mirror image of English word order.
The verb encodes the person
verb person endings| Person | Ending | Example |
|---|---|---|
| First singular | -م | وایم |
| Second singular | -ې | وایې |
| Third singular | -ي | وایي |
| First plural | -و | وایو |
| Second plural | -ئ | وایئ |
| Third plural | -ي | وایي |
The verb stem stays the same across all three examples. What changes at the end, and what does each ending tell you?
Pashto verbs take person suffixes directly on the present stem. The endings are: -م (I), -ې (you), -ي (he/she/they). Because the ending encodes the person, the pronoun can often be dropped.
Every noun has a gender
grammatical genderLook at the words for "boy" and "girl." Their endings differ. Now look at the verb "is" — it also changes. What is it tracking?
Every Pashto noun is either masculine or feminine. Masculine nouns often end in a consonant or -ی, while feminine nouns typically end in -ه or -ا. The copula (is) also shifts: دی for masculine and ده for feminine.
Adjectives shift with the noun
adjective agreement| Form | Masculine | Feminine |
|---|---|---|
| Direct singular | لوی (big) | لویه (big) |
| Direct plural | لوی | لویې |
| Oblique singular | لوی | لویې |
The adjective "big" has different forms across these examples. What is driving the change?
Adjectives that end in a vowel agree with their noun in gender and number. Masculine singular takes -ه (لوی → لوی), feminine singular takes -ه (لویه), and masculine plural takes -ه (لوی → لویو in oblique). Not all adjectives inflect — those ending in a consonant like ښه (good) stay the same across genders.
Nouns change their shape
case system| Case | سړی (man) | ښځه (woman) |
|---|---|---|
| Direct | سړی | ښځه |
| Oblique | سړي | ښځې |
| Ablative | سړیه | ښځې |
| Vocative | سړیه | ښځې |
Compare سړی standing alone with سړي before a postposition. The ending changed — but the meaning is the same noun. Why did it shift?
Pashto has four cases: direct (subject/citation form), oblique (before postpositions and as past-tense ergative subject), ablative (with certain prepositions like له "from"), and vocative (direct address). Masculine nouns ending in -ی shift to -ي in the oblique.
Relationship words come after
postpositionsEnglish says "to the house." Where does the relationship word go in Pashto? And what happens to the noun before it?
Pashto uses postpositions — they come after the noun, not before it. The noun must be in the oblique case before a postposition. "کور ته" means "house to" (= to the house). Common postpositions include ته (to/towards), کې (in), باندې (on), and سره (with).
Showing who owns what
د possessiveA small word د appears before the possessor in each example, and the possessor noun changes form. What case is the possessor in?
Pashto marks possession with the preposition د (of) placed before the possessor, which must be in the oblique case. "د سړي کتاب" means "of the man book" (= the man's book). This is one of the few prepositions in an otherwise postpositional language.
Shifting time
tenseAll three sentences use the same verb meaning "speak." The first is present, the second is past, the third is future. What changes to shift the time?
The present tense uses the present stem with person endings (وایم). The simple past uses the past stem (وویل). The future adds the particle به anywhere before the verb while keeping present tense endings (به وایم). The particle به is a clitic — it floats to the second position in the clause.
Saying no
negation with نهCompare the positive and negative sentences. What word was added, and where does it sit relative to the verb?
Place نه directly before the verb to negate it. "زه پښتو نه وایم" (I do not speak Pashto). For imperative negation, use مه instead: "مه وایه!" (don't say it!). The negation particle stays immediately before the verb in all tenses.
Asking questions
interrogativesIn example 1, آیا appears at the beginning. In example 2, a question word sits inside the sentence. Where exactly does it sit?
For yes/no questions, place آیا at the beginning — or simply use rising intonation. For information questions, Pashto uses in-situ question words: they stay in the same position as the answer would. "ته څه وایې؟" (you what speak?) — څه sits exactly where the object goes.
The past-tense twist
split ergativityExample 1 is the present: "The man reads a book." Example 2 is the past: "The man read the book." The subject changed form, and the verb ending changed too. What is the verb now agreeing with?
Pashto has split ergativity: in any past tense with a transitive verb, the subject goes into the oblique case and the verb agrees with the object instead. "سړی کتاب لولي" (present, verb agrees with سړی). "سړي کتاب ولوست" (past, subject becomes oblique سړي, verb agrees with کتاب which is masculine). This is the most distinctive feature of Pashto grammar.
Two levels of respect
politeness systemBoth sentences mean "you speak Pashto." The pronoun and verb ending change together. What is driving the shift?
Pashto has two levels of "you": ته (informal singular) and تاسو (formal/plural). Using تاسو for a single person signals respect. The verb endings also change: ته triggers singular endings (-ې), while تاسو triggers plural endings (-ئ). Using تاسو is the safe default with strangers and elders.
Complete or ongoing action
aspectExample 1 shows "the man read the book" and example 2 shows "the man was reading the book." The verb looks different. What changes to show whether the action was completed or ongoing?
Pashto distinguishes perfective (completed) and imperfective (ongoing/habitual) aspect in every tense. The perfective past typically uses the و- prefix on the verb (ولوست = read, completed). The imperfective past uses the present stem with past endings (لوست = was reading, ongoing). This perfective/imperfective split runs through the entire verb system.
Building verbs from nouns
complex predicatesEach example pairs a noun or adjective with either کول or کېدل. One creates an action you do to something; the other creates something that happens. What is the difference?
Pashto builds most of its verbs by combining a noun or adjective with a light verb. کول (to do/make) creates transitive meanings: "کار کول" (work doing = to work). کېدل (to become) creates intransitive meanings: "پیل کېدل" (start becoming = to begin). This system is extremely productive — new concepts are expressed by pairing a loanword with کول or کېدل.
The full picture
putting it togetherHow many grammar patterns from earlier steps can you identify in these sentences? Try naming each one before reading the translation.
Pashto grammar is split ergativity flipping verb agreement between present and past, a four-case system reshaping nouns before postpositions, grammatical gender threading through adjectives and copulas, and complex predicates building new verbs from nouns — all working together as a system.