Maithili grammar, step by step
A guided tour through Maithili grammar with glossed examples that show how each piece of a sentence fits together.
Grammar Walkthrough
Discover how the language works through examples
Maithili grammar has a feature found in very few languages worldwide: the verb ending encodes not just who is doing the action, but also who is being addressed or affected — and at what level of respect.
The verb comes last
SOV word orderWhere is the verb in each sentence? What sits between the subject and the verb?
Maithili is a Subject-Object-Verb language. The verb always comes at the end. The object sits between the subject and the verb. This holds for simple and complex sentences alike.
The verb tracks the person
verb person suffixesThe auxiliary word changes in each example — छी, छह, छथि. What is it tracking?
Maithili verbs use an auxiliary (छी, छह, छथि, etc.) that encodes the subject's person. The main verb takes a habitual participle suffix (-ैत), and the auxiliary does the person-marking work. This two-part structure — participle plus auxiliary — is the backbone of Maithili conjugation.
Three levels of respect
honorific pronouns| Level | Pronoun | Auxiliary |
|---|---|---|
| Non-honorific | तोँ | छह |
| Honorific | अहाँ | छी |
| High-honorific | अपने | छथि |
All three sentences mean "you speak." The pronoun and verb auxiliary both change. What determines which form to use?
Maithili actually distinguishes four levels of "you," but the two lower levels share the same pronoun तोँ (differing only in verb endings). So three pronoun-distinguished levels emerge: तोँ (non-honorific, for intimates and children), अहाँ (honorific, the standard respectful form for peers and acquaintances), and अपने (high-honorific, for elders and superiors). Each triggers a different auxiliary. Choosing the wrong level is a serious social misstep.
The verb knows the object
subject-object agreement| Subject | Object | Verb form |
|---|---|---|
| हम (I) | ओकरा (him/her, non-honorific) | देखैत छियैक |
| हम (I) | तोरा (you, non-honorific) | देखैत छियौक |
| हम (I) | अहाँकेँ (you, honorific) | देखैत छी |
All three sentences mean "I see ___." The subject is the same (हम, "I"). Only the object changes — and the verb ending changes with it. What is the verb tracking?
This is Maithili's most distinctive feature: the verb agrees with both the subject AND the object. Specifically, the verb ending shifts based on the honorific level of the object. When the object is non-honorific, the verb takes one form; when honorific, another; when high-honorific, yet another. Very few languages in the world do this.
Relationship words come after
postpositions| Postposition | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|
| -केँ | Accusative / dative | बच्चाकेँ (to the child) |
| -सँ | Instrumental / ablative | हाथसँ (by hand) |
| -मे | Locative | घरमे (in the house) |
| -क | Genitive | रामक (Ram's) |
Short markers attach after nouns: -केँ, -सँ, -मे. Where do they sit relative to the noun, and what role does each play?
Maithili uses postpositions — relationship words that come after the noun, the mirror image of English prepositions. These mark the noun's grammatical role in the sentence.
Shifting time
tense systemAll three sentences use the same verb stem. The first is present, the second past, the third future. What changes to shift the time?
In the present habitual, the participle suffix -ैत pairs with a present auxiliary (छी). For past tense, Maithili uses a simple past suffix directly on the stem (बजलहुँ). For the future, a future suffix attaches to the stem (बजबैक). The stem stays constant — the time-marking changes around it.
Gender plays a quiet role
grammatical genderA boy and a girl both "went" — look at the verb form. Is there a difference? Now look at the third example. Where does gender hide in Maithili?
Unlike Hindi, modern Maithili verbs do not mark gender in everyday speech. "The boy went" (छौड़ा गेल) and "the girl went" (छौड़ी गेल) use the exact same verb form. In formal or literary style, gender can surface in one specific place: third-person honorific past — गेलाह (masculine) versus गेलिह (feminine). Gender exists in some noun pairs (छौड़ा/छौड़ी, राजा/रानी), but the verb stays unchanged in nearly all contexts.
Saying no
negationCompare the affirmative and negative sentences. A new word appears — where does it go, and what happens to the auxiliary?
Maithili negates with नहि (or the shorter form ने) placed before the verb. In the present habitual, the auxiliary typically drops when negation is present: "हम नहि बजैत छी" can become "हम नहि बजैत." The negative particle always precedes the verb complex.
Asking questions
interrogativesIn example 1, की appears at the start to form a yes/no question. In example 2, a question word sits inside the sentence. Where does it go?
For yes/no questions, place की at the beginning — the rest of the sentence stays the same. For information questions, Maithili uses in-situ question words: की (what), कतय (where), and कोना (how) stay in the position where the answer would go. The word order does not rearrange.
Chaining actions in sequence
conjunctive participleExample 2 has two actions that happen in sequence — coming and then speaking. The first verb has a special form ending in -कय. What does this form express?
The conjunctive participle (stem + -कय or -के) links sequential actions: "having done X, then Y." अएकय बजलाह means "having-come spoke" — came and then spoke. The participle always shares the subject of the main verb. This is very common in natural Maithili to chain events without conjunctions.
Is it happening right now?
aspect markersCompare the habitual "बजैत छी" with "बजि रहल छी." A new word appears between the verb and the auxiliary. What does it add?
Maithili layers aspect between the verb stem and the auxiliary. The progressive uses रहल (ongoing right now): "बजि रहल छी" means "I am speaking." The completive uses चुकल (finished): "बजि चुकल छी" means "I have finished speaking." The habitual -ैत is also an aspect marker, indicating regular or ongoing action.
Light verbs add nuance
compound verbsEach example has a main verb followed by a second verb (देनाइ or लेनाइ). The second verb adds something that was not there with the main verb alone. What does each contribute?
Maithili compound verbs pair a main verb stem with a "light verb" that shades the meaning. देनाइ (give) makes the action outward or other-benefiting: "बजा देनाइ" means to tell for someone else's benefit. लेनाइ (take) makes it self-benefiting: "पढ़ि लेनाइ" means to read for oneself. These are extremely common in natural Maithili.
Wanting and being able
infinitive + modalsEach sentence has two verb ideas — "want" and "speak", or "can" and "speak". One is conjugated; the other is in a base form. Which is which?
The infinitive or verb stem pairs with modal verbs like चाहैत (want) and सकैत (can). The modal conjugates for person and tense, while the main verb stays in a stem or infinitive form. "बजबाक चाहैत छी" means "I want to speak" — literally "of-speaking wanting am."
Possession and belonging
possessionThe possessive words हमर and तोहर change to match different contexts. And in example 3, there is no verb for "have" — how does Maithili express it?
Maithili possessives include हमर (my), तोहर (your, non-honorific), and अहाँक (your, honorific). The genitive postposition -क attaches to nouns for possession: "रामक किताब" means "Ram's book." To express "I have," Maithili says "हमरा लग किताब अछि" — literally "near me book is." There is no verb for "to have."
The full picture
putting it togetherHow many grammar patterns from earlier steps can you identify in these sentences? Try naming each one.
Maithili grammar is subject-object verb agreement layered onto a four-tier honorific system (three distinct pronoun levels), with postpositions, aspect markers, and compound verbs all working together. The verb ending is a compressed code for who is acting, who is being acted upon, and how much respect each deserves. Once you can read that code, the entire language opens up.